Tools of the Trade
Lesson 1: Period
When to use a period:
1. After an initial: George W. Bush Booker T. Washington
2. As a decimal: Bill earned a 95.8 percent in his math class. A program costs $3.75.
3. After abbreviations: Mr. Mrs. Dr. Ph.D.
4. After final abbreviations: When Bill is nervous, he talks a lot, sweats in his palms, laughs constantly etc.
5. At the end of a sentence: Put your phone away when the bell rings to begin class.
Lesson 2: Ellipsis
When typing an ellipsis, leave one space before, after, and between each period.
1. To show omitted words:
Complete Quote: "All I know is that I saw something that looked like some type of giant flying saucer making some loud humming noise with bright, flashing lights that were pointed right at me."
Shortened Quote: ". . . I saw something that looked like some type of giant flying saucer . . . with bright, flashing, lights that were pointed right at me."
2. If the words are left out at the end of a sentence, use a period followed by the three dots:
Complete Quote: "That is the last thing I remember about my run last week. Then I woke up in my bed."
Shortened Quote: "That is the last thing I remember. . . .Then I work up in my bed."
3. For a pause in dialogue:
"That's . . . amazing!"
Lesson 3: Comma
Commas are used to keep words from running together, making your writing easier to read. Commas tell the reader where to pause.
1. To separate items in a series:
Words in a series: Wyatt likes pineapple, ham, and black olives on pizza.
Phrases in a series: At the Y Sharif plays basketball, lifts weights, and runs around the track.
2. In dates and addresses:
We are playing golf on July 5, 2020, at Belk Park.
His address was 10 Metz Lane, Edwardsville, IL 62025.
3. To organize numbers:
Lexie's 1989 Mazda has 756,457 miles on it. She is trying to sell it for $12,476.
4. To set off interruptions:
As it turned out, however, the car belonged to Uncle Giuseppe.
5. Between two or more independent clauses (complete thoughts) with a conjunction:
Michael brought his lunch today, but he forgot it in third hour.
She always brings her dog to the park, and sometimes she takes her cat.
6. To set off dialogue:
Phillip used to always say, "I hate to play golf in the cold."
7. In directly addressing someone:
Tony, put your phone away!
Put your phone away, Tony!
8. In letter writing:
Dearest Uncle Tony, (greeting)
Sincerely your lover, Enrique (closing)
9. To separate adjectives which equally modify the same noun:
I wear old, moldy tube socks when I play soccer.
Tips: *Switch the order of the adjectives; if the sentence still makes sense, the adjectives modify equally. *Insert and between the adjectives; if the sentence reads well, use a comma when and is omitted.
10. To set off interjections:
Wow, your jump shot has really improved!
Hey, your breath smells like someone puked in dumpster.
11. To set off appositives:
My father, a mafia boss, never pays his parking tickets.
She gave the money to Ricardo, her ex-boyfriend.
12. To set off long, dependent phrases and clauses at the beginning of sentences:
After skateboarding for six hours, Shane's knees were aching.
When you reach the corner of 6th Avenue, you need to make a right.
Lesson 4: Semicolon
The semicolon is a cross between a period and a comma. Sometimes, it acts like period; other times, it acts like a comma.
1. Use a semicolon between independent clauses. Both sides of the semicolon must be a complete sentence.
Bill is a total slob; Cindy is not better.
The movie was sold out; however, we purchased tickets before the show.
2. Use a semicolon to separate phrases, which usually have commas:
We should get in shape; eat less processed food, drink less juice, and eat out less; and go to the gym.
Lesson 5: Colon
A colon is used in a sentence to introduce a list or draw attention to information. Colons are also used between numbers in a time.
1. Use a colon to introduce a list.
The boats in the harbor are used for three reasons: transportation, recreation, and racing.
2. Use a colon after a salutation in a letter:
Dear Mr. Sassypants:
3. Use a colon between numbers in a time.
Meet me at the flagpole at 3:00 p.m.
Tim ran a 15:31 in the mile.
4. Use a colon as part of an introduction to a quote:
Vince Lombardi once issued the following words: "Fatigue makes cowards of us all."
Lesson 6: Hyphen
Hyphens are used to divide, join, and create new words.
1. Hyphens divide words.
When the Russians realized that the city of St. Peters-
burg was captured, they attempted to destroy the city's resources.
2. Use a hyphen to make a compound word.
well-known, hard-fought, barely-worn
3. Use a hyphen in fractions.
one-half, three-fourths, one-tenth
4. Use a hyphen to form an adjective by joining two words which work well together before a noun.
His soul-crushing speech left the child lugubrious.
5. Use a hyphen to create new words using prefixes self, ex, great and half. Add a hyphen to suffixes free and elect.
self-examine, ex-teacher, fat-free, president-elect.
Lesson 7: Dash
A dash may be used to show a change in thought or direction or to show that the speaker has been interrupted.
1. Use a dash to show a sudden break in a sentence.
The new uniforms--in case you didn't notice--are ridiculously baggy.
Our cat--everyone loves her--purrs when she sits on my lap.
2. Use a dash to show that one's speech has been interrupted.
Hello--yes, I--no, that's not my car--well, no I don't even--of course, I'll meet you now.
Lesson 8: Apostrophe
An apostrophe is used to form plurals, to show that a letter or letters have been omitted from a word, or to show possession.
1. Use an apostrophe and an s to form the plural of a letter, a number or a sign:
A's 6's +'s
2. An apostrophe is used to show that one or more letters have been left out to form a contraction.
do not = don't o'clock = of the clock he'd = he had they're = they are
3. Us an apostrophe in place of missing numbers or letter:
tryin' = trying f'in' = fixing class of '56 = class of 1956
4. The possessive form of a singular noun is usually made by adding an apostrophe and an s. My
My sister's best friend plays basketball.
*Pro tip: When a singular noun ends with an s or a z sound, the possessive may be formed by adding only the apostrophe. Except when a singular noun is a one-syllable word; in this case add an apostrophe and an s:
Lucas' guitar has a broken string. The Williams' house is flooded. Exception: Gus's father is Ron.
5. The possessive form of a plural noun ending in a s is usually made by adding just an apostrophe:
The girls' tennis team will play at home today.
*Pro tip: if the plural noun doesn't end in an s, then an s must be added:
The children's book section of the library is closed.
6. When possession is shared by more than one noun, add an apostrophe and an s to the last noun:
Bill, Dustin, and Dave's tent ripped in the wind.
Lesson 9: Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used to signify exact words, to show that words are used in a special way, and to punctuatuate certain titles.
1. Use quotation marks to show spoken words:
"Shut up," said Barry Bonds. Barry Bonds said, "Shut up."
2. Use quotation marks to set apart the word which is being discussed:
Can we use the word "gotcha" in the paper? Never use "finna" in formal writing.
3. Use quotation marks to signify that a word is slang or part of the colloquial vernacular:
Raymond said that he was Suzy's "rebound."
4. Use quotation marks to punctuate the titles of short poems (not epics), songs, short stories, chapters, and articles found in magazines, newspapers, or encyclopedias.
Clearly, "Freebird" is Lynyrd Skynyrd's best song. I read "The Fall of Grace" by O. Henry.
*Pro Tip: A question mark or an exclamation point is placed inside the quotation marks when it punctuates the quotation: it is placed outside when it punctuates the main sentence.
"Should I call Barry?" asked the reporter.
"Please, call the reporter!" said Barry.
Did Barry say, "Call the reporter"?
Lesson 10: Question Mark
Question marks are used after a direct question and to show the doubt about the correctness of something.
1. A question mark is used at the end of a direct question.
Have you ever ridden on a motorcycle?
2. A question mark is placed in parenthesis to show that the speaker/writer is not sure if something is correct
I think she is worth 10 billion (?). It's a black lab (?).
Lesson 11: Exclamation Point
An exclamation point is used to express a strong feeling. It may be placed after a word, a phrase, or a sentence.
Yes! (word) Not now! (phrase) I want to buy your house! (sentence)
Lesson 12: Italics
Italics are used to indicate titles and special words. Italics are the same as underlining (usually); however, one cannot handwrite italics. While many things may be either italicized or underlined, one should be consistent.
1. Use italics for the titles of plays, books, newspapers, magazines, television shows, movies, albums, and other complete works.
Have you seen Hamilton? (play) 2112 is Rush's best album. (album)
I read Gone With the Wind. (book) Hans Solo is a character in Star Wars. (movie)
2. Use italics to indicate names of aircraft or ships.
The U.S.S Constitution is in the Boston Harbor. (ship)
Charles Lindbergh flew the Spirit of St. Louis from New York to Paris. (plane)
3. Use italics for foreign words or phrases.
E pluribus unum is written on every U.S. nickel.
The dictator was in constant fear of a coup d'etat.
4. Use italics to indicate words discussed as words, rather than for their meaning.
The word moist is irritating to many people.
Lesson 13: Parenthesis
Parenthesis are used around words included in a sentence to add information to make the idea clearer.
1. Parenthesis are used to add information.
The periodic chart (figure 2a) is useful for chemistry students.
Our store is next to the bowling alley (behind Arby's) facing south.
2. Use parenthesis to make an idea clearer.
The students with special needs (we have five in wheelchairs) will need assistance.
His father (sitting silently in row 5) was snoring.
Lesson 14: Capitalization
Capitalize the following:
1. Proper nouns and proper adjectives. A proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing. A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun.
Proper nouns: St. Louis Battle Hawks Fred Johnson Alabama Shakes
Proper adjectives: Idaho potatoes a Columbus museum
2. People:
Crazy Horse Tiny Tim William Carlos Williams
3. Words used as names such as mother, father, cousin, and aunt IF these words are used as names:
Please ask Father for the keys to the Buick. (Father takes the place of the name.)
Please ask my father for the keys to the Buick. (Does not replace the name.)
4. Titles used with names:
President Wilson State Representative Stuart Dr. Anthony Smith
5. Historical events:
Stone Age, World War I, Stamp Act, Boston Tea Party
6. Abbreviations:
M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) ATP (Association of Tennis Professionals)
7. Organizations:
Girl Scouts of America, Republicans, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
8. Titles:
Sports Illustrated, Star Wars, Hamilton
9. The first word of every sentence:
You learned to capitalize the first letter of every sentence in first grade.
10. Days, special holidays, and months:
Wednesday, November, Passover, President's Day
11. Names of religions, nationalities, and languages:
Jewish, Hindu, Christian, Canadian, Spanish
12. Official names of businesses and their products:
McDonald's, Target, Vive Yoga Studio, Egg McMuffin, The Hunk at Pantera's